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History of Greece
See also: Timeline of Greek history The history of Greece encompasses the history of the territory of the modern nation state of as well as that of the and the areas they inhabited and ruled historically. The scope of Greek habitation and rule has varied throughout the ages and as a result the history of Greece is similarly elastic in what it includes. Generally, the history of Greece is divided into the following periods: *'' '' covering a period beginning with the establishment of agricultural societies in 7000 BC and ending in 3200/3100 BC, *'' '' ( or ) chronology covering a period beginning with the transition to a metal-based economy in 3200/3100 BC to the rise and fall of the spanning roughly five centuries (1600–1100 BC), *'' '' covering a period from the fall of the Mycenaean civilization in 1100 BC to 146 BC spanning multiple sub-periods including the (or Iron Age, Homeric Age), , the and the , *'' '' covering a period from the in 146 BC to 324 AD, *'' '' covering a period from the establishment of the capital city of , , in 324 AD until the in 1453 AD, *'' '' covering a period from 1453 up until the , *'' '' covering a period from 1821 to the present. At its cultural and geographical peak, Greek civilization spread from all the way to the mountains in . Since then, Greek minorities have remained in former Greek territories (e.g. , , , , , , ) and Greek have assimilated into differing societies across the globe (e.g. , , , ). Nowadays most Greeks live in the modern states of Greece (independent since 1821) and . Prehistoric Greece Neolithic to Bronze Age (7000–1100 BC) linguistic area according to linguist .}} The reached beginning in 7000–6500 BC when agriculturalists from the entered the Greek peninsula from by island-hopping through the . The earliest Neolithic sites with developed agricultural economies in Europe dated 8500–9000 BPE are found in Greece. The , speaking the predecessor of the , arrived in the Greek mainland sometime in the or the (ca. 3200 BC). The transition from the Greek Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (or Early Helladic I–II) occurred gradually when Greece's agricultural population began to import bronze and copper and used basic bronze-working techniques. During the end of the 3rd millennium BC (circa 2200 BC; Early Helladic III), the indigenous inhabitants of mainland Greece underwent a cultural transformation attributed to climate change, local events and developments (e.g., destruction of the " "), as well as to continuous contacts with various areas such as western , the , and . Cycladic and Minoan civilization The is a significant Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age culture, is best known for its schematic flat female idols carved out of the islands' pure white marble centuries before the great Middle Bronze Age ("Minoan") culture arose in Crete, to the south. The in , which lasted from about c. 3000 BC ( ) to c. 1400 BC, and the on the Greek mainland from circa 3200/3100 BC to 2000/1900 BC. Little specific information is known about the Minoans (even the name Minoans is a modern appellation, derived from , the legendary king of Crete), including their written system, which was recorded on the undeciphered script and . They were primarily a mercantile people engaged in extensive overseas trade throughout the Mediterranean region. Minoan civilization was affected by a number of natural cataclysms such as the volcanic eruption at (c. 1628–1627 BC) and (c. 1600 BC). In 1425 BC, the Minoan palaces (except Knossos) were devastated by fire, which allowed the Mycenaean Greeks, influenced by the Minoans' culture, to expand into Crete. The Minoan civilization which preceded the Mycenaean civilization on Crete was revealed to the modern world by Sir in 1900, when he purchased and then began excavating a site at . Mycenaean civilization Mycenaean civilization originated and evolved from the society and culture of the Early and Middle Helladic periods in mainland Greece. It emerged in circa 1600 BC, when culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from and lasted until the collapse of the Mycenaean palaces in c. 1100 BC. is the Bronze Age civilization of and it is the historical setting of the s of and most of and . The Mycenaean period takes its name from the archaeological site in the northeastern , in the of southern Greece. , , , and are also important Mycenaean sites. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior . Around 1400 BC, the extended their control to , center of the , and adopted a form of the Minoan script called to write their early form of . The Mycenaean-era script is called , which was deciphered in 1952 by . The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in (tholoi), large circular burial chambers with a high-vaulted roof and straight entry passage lined with stone. They often buried daggers or some other form of military equipment with the deceased. The nobility were often buried with gold masks, tiaras, armor and jeweled weapons. Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some of the nobility underwent . Around 1100–1050 BC, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Numerous cities were sacked and the region entered what historians see as a " ". During this period, Greece experienced a decline in and . The Greeks themselves have traditionally blamed this decline on an by another wave of Greek people, the , although there is scant archaeological evidence for this view. Ancient Greece (1100–146 BC) }} in Athens}} refers to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Dark Ages to the end of (circa 600 AD). In common usage it refers to all Greek history before the , but historians use the term more precisely. Some writers include the periods of the and civilizations, while others argue that these civilizations were so different from later Greek cultures that they should be classed separately. Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to begin with the date of the first in 776 BC, but most historians now extend the term back to about 1000 BC. The traditional date for the end of the Classical Greek period is the death of in 323 BC. The period that follows is classed as . Not everyone treats the Classical Greek and Hellenic periods as distinct; however, and some writers treat the Ancient Greek civilization as a continuum running until the advent of in the 3rd century AD. Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of . Greek culture was a powerful influence in the , which carried a version of it to many parts of . Ancient Greek civilization has been immensely influential on the language, politics, educational systems, , art and architecture of the modern world, particularly during the in Western Europe and again during various revivals in 18th and 19th-century Europe and the . Iron Age (1100–800 BC) The Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100 BC–800 BC) refers to the period of Greek history from the presumed and end of the in the 11th century BC to the rise of the first s in the 9th century BC and the epics of and earliest writings in in the 8th century BC. The collapse of the Mycenaean coincided with the fall of several other large empires in the near east, most notably the and the . The cause may be attributed to an invasion of the wielding iron weapons. When the Dorians came down into Greece they also were equipped with superior iron weapons, easily dispersing the already weakened Mycenaeans. The period that follows these events is collectively known as the Greek Dark Ages. Kings ruled throughout this period until eventually they were replaced with an aristocracy, then still later, in some areas, an aristocracy within an aristocracy—an elite of the elite. Warfare shifted from a focus on cavalry to a great emphasis on infantry. Due to its cheapness of production and local availability, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice in the manufacturing of tools and weapons. Slowly equality grew among the different sects of people, leading to the dethronement of the various Kings and the rise of the family. At the end of this period of stagnation, the Greek civilization was engulfed in a renaissance that spread the Greek world as far as the and . Writing was relearned from the , eventually spreading north into and the . Archaic Greece In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the , modifying it to create the . From about the 9th century BC, written records begin to appear. Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography, where every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges. The Archaic period can be understood as the , when Greece was at the fringe, but not under the sway, of the budding . Greece adopted significant amounts of cultural elements from the Orient, in art as well as in religion and mythology. Archaeologically, Archaic Greece is marked by . Classical Greece in , one of the earliest nameable historians whose work survives.}} at '' by .}} The basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the , sometimes translated as . "Politics" literally means "the things of the polis" where each city-state was independent, at least in theory. Some city-states might be subordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to its mother city), some might have had governments wholly dependent upon others (the in was imposed by following the ), but the titularly supreme power in each city was located within that city. This meant that when Greece went to war (e.g., against the ), it took the form of an alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunity for wars within Greece between different cities. Persian Wars Two major wars shaped the Classical Greek world. The (500–448 BC) are recounted in 's . By the late 6th century BC, the ruled over all Greek city states and had made territorial gains in the and Eastern Europe proper as well. The n Greek cities from the , through a chain of events, and were supported by some of the mainland cities, eventually led by . To punish mainland Greece for its support of the Ionian cities (which uprising by that time had already been quelled) launched the , which lasted from 492 BC till 490 BC. The Persian general re-subjugated and conquered in the early stages of the war, but the war eventually ended with a Greek victory. Darius's successor, , launched the . Even though at a crucial point in the war, the Persians briefly overran northern and central Greece, the Greek city-states managed to turn this war into a victory too. The notable battles of the Greco-Persian Wars include , , , and .) To prosecute the war and then to defend Greece from further Persian attack, Athens founded the in 477 BC. Initially, each city in the League would contribute ships and soldiers to a common army, but in time Athens allowed (and then compelled) the smaller cities to contribute funds so that it could supply their quota of ships. Secession from the League could be punished. Following military reversals against the Persians, the treasury was moved from to Athens, further strengthening the latter's control over the League. The Delian League was eventually referred to pejoratively as the Athenian Empire. In 458 BC, while the Persian Wars were still ongoing, war broke out between the Delian League and the , comprising and its allies. After some inconclusive fighting, the two sides signed a peace in 447 BC. That peace was stipulated to last thirty years: instead it held only until 431 BC, with the onset of the . Our main sources concerning this war are 's and 's . Peloponnesian War The war began over a dispute between and . intervened on the Epidamnian side. Fearful lest Corinth capture the Corcyran navy (second only to the Athenian in size), Athens intervened. It prevented Corinth from landing on Corcyra at the , laid siege to , and forbade all commerce with Corinth's closely situated ally, (the ). There was disagreement among the Greeks as to which party violated the treaty between the Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues, as Athens was technically defending a new ally. The Corinthians turned to Sparta for aid. Fearing the growing might of Athens, and witnessing Athens' willingness to use it against the Megarians (the embargo would have ruined them), Sparta declared the treaty to have been violated and the Peloponnesian War began in earnest. The first stage of the war (known as the Archidamian War for the Spartan king, ) lasted until 421 BC with the signing of the . The Athenian general recommended that his city fight a defensive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forces led by Sparta, and importing everything needful by maintaining its powerful navy. Athens would simply outlast Sparta, whose citizens feared to be out of their city for long lest the revolt. This strategy required that Athens endure regular s, and in 430 BC it was visited with an awful , including Pericles. With Pericles gone, less conservative elements gained power in the city and Athens went on the offensive. It captured 300–400 Spartan s at the . This represented a significant fraction of the Spartan fighting force which the latter decided it could not afford to lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suffered humiliating defeats at and . The Peace of Nicias concluded with Sparta recovering its hostages and Athens recovering the city of . ("Athenian Empire") in 431 BC, just prior to the .}} Those who signed the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC swore to uphold it for fifty years. The second stage of the Peloponnesian War began in 415 BC when Athens embarked on the to support an ally ( ) attacked by and to conquer . Initially, Sparta was reluctant, but , the Athenian general who had argued for the Sicilian Expedition, defected to the Spartan cause upon being accused of grossly impious acts and convinced them that they could not allow Athens to subjugate Syracuse. The campaign ended in disaster for the Athenians. Athens' Ionian possessions rebelled with the support of Sparta, as advised by Alcibiades. In 411 BC, an oligarchical revolt in Athens held out the chance for peace, but the Athenian navy, which remained committed to the democracy, refused to accept the change and continued fighting in Athens' name. The navy recalled Alcibiades (who had been forced to abandon the Spartan cause after reputedly seducing the wife of , a Spartan king) and made him its head. The oligarchy in Athens collapsed and Alcibiades reconquered what had been lost. In 407 BC, Alcibiades was replaced following a minor naval defeat at the . The Spartan general , having fortified his city's naval power, won victory after victory. Following the , which Athens won but was prevented by bad weather from rescuing some of its sailors, Athens executed or exiled eight of its top naval commanders. Lysander followed with a crushing blow at the in 405 BC which almost destroyed the Athenian fleet. Athens surrendered one year later, ending the Peloponnesian War. The war had left devastation in its wake. Discontent with the that followed (including the fact that it ceded and to the at the conclusion of the (395–387 BC); see ) induced the to attack. Their general, , crushed Sparta at the in 371 BC, inaugurating a period of Theban dominance in Greece. In 346 BC, unable to prevail in its ten-year war with , Thebes called upon for aid. quickly forced the city states into being united by the which led to the conquering of the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic Age had begun. Hellenistic Greece .}} The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the death of in 323 BC and ends with the of the Greek peninsula and islands by in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of , it did mark the end of Greek political independence. During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centres of Hellenistic culture were and , capitals of and . (See for the history of Greek culture outside Greece in this period.) Athens and her allies revolted against upon hearing that Alexander had died, but were defeated within a year in the . Meanwhile, a struggle for power broke out among Alexander's generals, which resulted in the break-up of his empire and the establishment of a number of new kingdoms (see the ). was left with , with the , , and points east. Control of Greece, , and was contested, but by 298 BC the had supplanted the . at the (3rd BC)}} Macedonian control of the city-states was intermittent, with a number of revolts. , , and other Greek states retained substantial independence, and joined the as a means of defending it and restoring democracy in their states, whereas they saw Macedon as a tyrannical kingdom because of the fact they had not adopted democracy. The , while nominally subject to the was in effect independent, and controlled most of southern Greece. also remained independent, but generally refused to join any league. realms included the : }} }} }} }} }} Also shown on the map: }} (non-Greek)}} (non-Greek)}} The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC. The occupied some of this area. Not shown: .}} In 267 BC, persuaded the Greek cities to revolt against Macedon, in what became the , after the Athenian leader . The cities were defeated and Athens lost her independence and her democratic institutions. This marked the end of Athens as a political actor, although it remained the largest, wealthiest and most cultivated city in Greece. In 225 BC, Macedon defeated the Egyptian fleet at and brought the islands, except Rhodes, under its rule as well. remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in 227 BC invaded and seized control of the League. The remaining Achaeans preferred distant Macedon to nearby Sparta, and allied with the former. In 222 BC, the Macedonian army defeated the Spartans and annexed their city—the first time Sparta had ever been occupied by a different state. was the last Greek ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the ever-increasing power of . Under his auspices, the Peace of Naupactus (217 BC) brought conflict between Macedon and the Greek leagues to an end, and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum. In 215 BC, however, Philip formed an alliance with Rome's enemy . Rome promptly lured the Achaean cities away from their nominal loyalty to Philip, and formed alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum, now the strongest power in . The broke out in 212 BC, and ended inconclusively in 205 BC, but Macedon was now marked as an enemy of Rome. In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage, and was free to turn her attention eastwards. In 198 BC, the broke out because Rome saw Macedon as a potential ally of the , the greatest power in the east. Philip's allies in Greece deserted him and in 197 BC he was decisively defeated at the by the Roman proconsul . Luckily for the Greeks, Flaminius was a moderate man and an admirer of Greek culture. Philip had to surrender his fleet and become a Roman ally, but was otherwise spared. At the in 196 BC, Flaminius declared all the Greek cities free, although Roman garrisons were placed at Corinth and . But the freedom promised by Rome was an illusion. All the cities except Rhodes were enrolled in a new League which Rome ultimately controlled, and aristocratic constitutions were favoured and actively promoted. Roman Greece (146 BC–324 AD) : last day before the Roman legions looted and burned the Greek city of . The last day on Corinth, , 1870}} }} Militarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the conquered the land (168 BC onwards), though Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Although the period of Roman rule in Greece is conventionally dated as starting from the sacking of by the Roman in 146 BC, Macedonia had already come under Roman control with the defeat of its king, , by the Roman at in 168 BC. The Romans divided the region into four smaller republics, and in 146 BC Macedonia officially became a province, with its capital at . The rest of the Greek gradually and eventually paid homage to Rome ending their de jure autonomy as well. The Romans left local administration to the without making any attempt to abolish traditional political patterns. The in continued to be the centre of civic and political life. 's decree in 212 AD, the , extended citizenship outside to all free adult men in the entire , effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of itself. The importance of this decree is historical, not political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied throughout the Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all Italy. In practice of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored by this decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt. Caracalla's decree did not set in motion the processes that led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to Greece and the East, but rather accelerated them, setting the foundations for the millennium-long rise of Greece, in the form of the , as a major power in and the in the . Byzantine Empire (324–1453 AD) }} by ' (late 11th century).}} The history of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire is described by August Heisenberg as the history of "the Christianized Roman empire of the Greek nation". The division of the empire into East and West and the subsequent collapse of the were developments that constantly accentuated the position of the Greeks in the empire and eventually allowed them to become identified with it altogether. The leading role of began when turned into the new capital of the Roman Empire, from then on to be known as , placing the city at the center of Hellenism, a beacon for the that lasted to the modern era. The figures of Constantine the Great and dominated during 324–610. Assimilating the Roman tradition, the emperors sought to offer the basis for later developments and for the formation of the Byzantine Empire. Efforts to secure the borders of the Empire and to restore the Roman territories marked the early centuries. At the same time, the definitive formation and establishment of the doctrine, but also a series of conflicts resulting from heresies that developed within the boundaries of the empire, marked the early period of Byzantine history. In the first period of the middle Byzantine era (610–867), the empire was attacked both by old enemies ( , , and ) as well as by new ones, appearing for the first time in history ( , ). The main characteristic of this period was that the enemy attacks were not localized to the border areas of the state but they were extended deep beyond, even threatening the capital itself. The attacks of the Slavs lost their periodical and temporary character and became permanent settlements that transformed into new states, initially hostile to Constantinople until their . Those states were referred by the Byzantines as s. Changes were also observed in the internal structure of the empire which was dictated by both external and internal conditions. The predominance of the small free farmers, the expansion of the military estates and the development of the system of s, brought to completion developments that had started in the previous period. Changes were noted also in the sector of administration: the administration and society had become immiscibly , while the restoration of Orthodoxy after the movement, allowed the successful resumption of missionary action among neighboring peoples and their placement within the sphere of Byzantine cultural influence. During this period the state was geographically reduced and economically damaged, since it lost wealth-producing regions; however, it obtained greater lingual, dogmatic and cultural homogeneity. From the late 8th century, the Empire began to recover from the devastating impact of successive invasions, and the reconquest of Greek peninsula began. Greeks from and were brought in as settlers. The were either driven out to Asia Minor or assimilated and the Sclavinias were eliminated. By the middle of the 9th century, Greece was Byzantine again, and the cities began to recover due to improved security and the restoration of effective central control. Economic prosperity }} When the Byzantine Empire was rescued from a period of crisis by the resolute leadership of the three emperors , and in the 12th century, Greece prospered. Recent research has revealed that this period was a time of significant growth in the rural economy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of new agricultural land being brought into production. The widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas. A steady increase in population led to a higher population density, and there is good evidence that the demographic increase was accompanied by the revival of towns. According to Alan Harvey's Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900–1200, towns expanded significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a ‘notable upsurge’ in new towns. Archaeological evidence tells us that many of the medieval towns, including , , and , experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, starting in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the 12th century. The growth of the towns attracted the , and this interest in trade appears to have further increased economic prosperity in Greece. Certainly, the Venetians and others were active traders in the ports of the , and they made a living out of shipping goods between the Kingdoms of and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and . Artistic revival monastery, artistic example of the }} A kind of "Renaissance" of the , as described by scholars, began since the 10th century. Many of the most important Byzantine churches in and around Athens, for example, were built during these two centuries, and this reflects the growth of urbanisation in Greece during this period. There was also a revival in the mosaic art with artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With its love of luxury and passion for color, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the Christian world. Beautiful also portrayed in dazzling color animals—lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins—confronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. The eyes of many patrons were attracted and the economy of Greece grew. In the provinces, regional schools of Architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. Yet the marvelous expansion of Byzantine art during this period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the empire, did not stop there. From the 10th to the 12th century, Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly show their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, prove the influence of Byzantium ?n the Norman Court of Sicily in the 12th century. Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of , merchants of Amalfi, and the Norman kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the 12th century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centers dedicated to its production. The Fourth Crusade after the .}} The year 1204 marks the beginning of the Late Byzantine period when and a number of Byzantine territories were conquered by the Latins during the . During this period, a number of Byzantine Greek successor states emerged such as the , the and the . In Latin-occupied territories, elements of feudality entered medieval Greek life. The , however, lasted only 57 years when in 1261, Constantinople was reclaimed by the Byzantine Greeks and the Byzantine Empire was restored. From 1261 onwards, Byzantium underwent a gradual weakening of its internal structures and the reduction of its territories from invasions culminating in the on May 29, 1453. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople resulted in the official end of both Byzantium and the Byzantine period of Greek history. Venetian and Ottoman rule (15th century–1821 AD) , on October 1827, marked the effective end of Ottoman rule in Greece.}} When the arrived, two Greek migrations occurred. The first migration entailed the Greek migrating to Western Europe and influencing the advent of the Renaissance. The second migration entailed Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsula and resettling in the mountains. The contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion. The Greeks living in the plains during Ottoman rule were either Christians who dealt with the burdens of foreign rule or Crypto-Christians (Greek Muslims who were secret practitioners of the Greek Orthodox faith). Some Greeks became to avoid heavy taxes and at the same time express their identity by maintaining their ties to the Greek Orthodox Church. However, Greeks who converted to and were not Crypto-Christians were deemed "Turks" in the eyes of Orthodox Greeks, even if they didn't adopt the Turkish language. The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early 19th century. Modern Greek nation state (1821–present) became the first capital of independent Greece during the governance of }} In the early months of 1821, the Greeks but did not achieve it until 1829. The Great Powers first shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the status quo of the , but soon changed their stance. Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to fight for the cause, including . On October 20, 1827, a combined British, French and Russian naval force destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptian armada. The Russian minister of foreign affairs, , himself a Greek, returned home as President of the new . The first capital of the independent was (1828–1829) and the second was (1828–1834). After his assassination, the European powers helped turn Greece into a monarchy; the first King, , came from and the second, , from . In 1834, King Otto transferred the capital to Athens. until 1947}} During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Greece sought to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire. Greece played a peripheral role in the . When Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1853, Greek leaders saw an opportunity to expand North and South into Ottoman areas that had a Christian majority. However, Greece did not coordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war, and received no outside military or financial support. The French and British seized its major port and effectively neutralized the Greek army. Greek efforts to cause insurrections failed as they were easily crushed by Ottoman forces. Greece was not invited to the peace conference and made no gains out of the war. The frustrated Greek leadership blamed the King for failing to take advantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and he was later forced to abdicate. The were given by Britain upon the arrival of the new King in 1863 and was ceded by the Ottomans in 1880. Modernization was King of the Hellenes from 1862 to 1913}} In the late 19th century, modernization transformed the social structure of Greece. The population grew rapidly, putting heavy pressure on the system of small farms with low productivity. Overall, population density more than doubled from 41 persons per square mile in 1829 to 114 in 1912 (16 to 44 per km2). One response was emigration to the United States, with a quarter million people leaving between 1906 and 1914. Entrepreneurs found numerous business opportunities in the retail and restaurant sectors of American cities; some sent money back to their families, others returned with hundreds of dollars, enough to purchase a farm or a small business in the old village. The urban population tripled from 8% in 1853 to 24% in 1907. Athens grew from a village of 6000 people in 1834, when it became the capital, to 63,000 in 1879, 111,000 in 1896, and 167,000 in 1907. In Athens and other cities, men arriving from rural areas set up workshops and stores, creating a middle class. They joined with bankers, professional men, university students, and military officers, to demand reform and modernization of the political and economic system. Athens became the center of the merchant marine, which quadrupled from 250,000 tons in 1875 to more than 1,000,000 tons in 1915. As the cities modernized, businessmen adopted the latest styles of Western European architecture. Balkan Wars during the Balkan Wars}} The participation of Greece in the of 1912–1913 is one of the most important episodes in modern Greek history, as it allowed the Greek state to almost double its size and achieve most of its present territorial size. As a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, most of , southern , and the northern were incorporated into the . World War I and Greco-Turkish War , when the seemed close to fulfillment, featuring .}} .}} The outbreak of in 1914 produced a split in Greek politics, with , an admirer of Germany, calling for neutrality while Prime Minister pushed for Greece to join the Allies. The conflict between the monarchists and the Venizelists sometimes resulted in open warfare and became known as the . In 1916, the Allies forced Constantine to abdicate in favor of his son Alexander and Venizelos returned as premier. At the end of the war, the Great Powers agreed that the Ottoman city of ( ) and its hinterland, both of which had large Greek populations, be handed over to Greece. in 1919, and in 1920 the was signed by the Ottoman government; the treaty stipulated that in five years time a plebiscite would be held in Smyrna on whether the region would join Greece. However, , led by , overthrew the Ottoman government and organised a military campaign against the Greek troops, resulting in the . A major Greek offensive ground to a halt in 1921, and by 1922 Greek troops were in retreat. The Turkish forces recaptured Smyrna on 9 September 1922, and and killing many Greeks and Armenians. The war was concluded by the , according to which there was to be a on the basis of religion. Over one million Orthodox Christians left Turkey in exchange for 400,000 Muslims from Greece. The events of 1919–1922 are regarded in Greece as a particularly calamitous period of history. Between 1914 and 1923, an estimated 750,000 to 900,000 Greeks died at the hands of the Ottoman Turks, in what many scholars have termed a . World War II .}} cavalry during the Axis occupation}} Despite the country's numerically small and ill-equipped armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to the efforts in . At the start of the war, Greece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to Italian demands. Italy invaded Greece by way of Albania on 28 October 1940, but Greek troops repelled the invaders after a bitter struggle (see ). This marked the first Allied victory in the war. Primarily to secure his strategic southern flank, German dictator Adolf Hitler reluctantly stepped in and launched the in April 1941. Axis units from Germany, Bulgaria, and Italy successfully invaded Greece, through Yugoslavia, forcing out the Greek defenders. The Greek government eventually decided to stop the fighting and thus stopped sending ammunition and supplies to the northern front and the defenders were easily overrun. The Greek government then proceeded, as the Nazi forces came towards the capital of Athens, to leave for Crete and then Cairo. On 20 May 1941, the Germans attempted to with a large attack by ers, with the aim of reducing the threat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in , but faced heavy resistance. The Greek campaign might have delayed German military plans against Soviet Union, and it is argued that had the German invasion of the started on 20 May 1941 instead of 22 June 1941, the Nazi assault against the Soviet Union might have succeeded. The heavy losses of German paratroopers led the Germans to launch no further large-scale air-invasions. During the , thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the Jewish community despite efforts by Christian Greeks to shelter the Jews. The economy of Greece was devastated. When the Soviet Army began its drive across in August 1944, the German Army in Greece began withdrawing north and northwestward from Greece into and to avoid being cut off in Greece. Hence, the German occupation of Greece ended in October 1944. The Resistance group seized control of Athens on 12 October 1944. British troops had already landed on 4 October in , and entered Athens on 14 October 1944. Christina Goulter summarizes the devastation done to Greece during the war: :"Between 1941 in 1945, over 8% of the Greek population had died; some 2000 villages and small towns had been razed to the ground; starvation was widespread due to the destruction of crops and worsened in many parts of Greece after liberation when agricultural labourers migrated to urban centres to escape politically inspired violence in the countryside; trade either internally or externally had all but ceased; most of Greece’s merchant marine lay at the bottom of the sea; and motorized transport had been confiscated by the axis occupiers." Greek Civil War (1944–1949) ", as well as entry routes to Greece.}} The was the first major confrontation of the . It was fought between 1944 and 1949 in between the nationalist/non-Marxist forces of Greece (financially supported by at first, and later by the ) and the (ELAS), which was the military branch of the (KKE). The conflict resulted in a victory for the British — and later U.S.-supported government forces, which led to Greece receiving American funds through the and the , as well as becoming a member of , which helped to define the ideological balance of power in the for the entire Cold War. The first phase of the civil war occurred in 1942–1944. Marxist and non-Marxist resistance groups fought each other in a fratricidal conflict to establish the leadership of the Greek resistance movement. In the second phase (1944), the ascendant communists, in military control of most of Greece, confronted the returning Greek , which had been formed under the auspices of the Western Allies in and originally included six KKE-affiliated ministers. In the third phase (commonly called the "Third Round" by the communists), guerrilla forces controlled by the KKE fought against the internationally recognized Greek government which was formed after elections were boycotted by the KKE. Although the involvement of the KKE in the uprisings was universally known, the party remained legal until 1948, continuing to coordinate attacks from its offices until . The war, which lasted from 1946 to 1949, was characterised by guerilla warfare between the KKE forces and Greek governmental forces mainly in the mountain ranges of northern Greece. The war ended with the NATO bombing of Mount Grammos and the final defeat of the KKE forces. The civil war left Greece with a legacy of political polarization. As a result, Greece also entered into an alliance with the United States and joined NATO, while relationships with its Communist northern neighbours, both pro-Soviet and neutral, became strained. Postwar development and integration in Western Bloc (1949–1967) In the 1950s and 1960s, Greece developed rapidly, initially with the help of the 's grants and loans, also to decrease the communist influence. In 1952, by joining NATO, Greece clearly became part of the Western Bloc of the Cold War. But in Greek society, the deep divide between the leftist and rightist sections continued. Greece economy advanced further through growth in the sector. New attention was given to , and in 1952 was guaranteed in the Constitution, full Constitutional equality following, and becoming the first female minister that decade. Military dictatorship (1967–1974) In 1967, the Greek military seized power in a , overthrowing the centre right government of . It established the which became known as the Régime of the Colonels. The junta government's accession to power lead to an isolation to Greece from European affairs and froze Greece's entry to the European Union. In 1973, the régime abolished the and in 1974, dictator denied help to the United States. After a second coup that year, Colonel was appointed as the new head-of-state. Ioannides was responsible for the 1974 coup against President of . The coup became the pretext for the first wave of the in 1974 (see ). The Cyprus events and the outcry following a bloody suppression of in Athens led to the implosion of the military régime. Third Hellenic Republic (1974–present) After the end of the military régime, democracy was restored. The fall of the junta was followed by the . Metapolitefsi was initiated when returned from self-exile in Paris at the invitation of the junta, to become interim prime minister on July 23, 1974. and later gained re-election for two further terms at the head of the conservative . In August 1974, Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. In 1974, a referendum voted 69%–31% to confirm the deposition of King . A democratic republican constitution came into force. Another previously exiled politician, also returned and founded the PASOK Party ( ), which won the 1981 election and dominated Greek politics for almost two decades. After the restoration of democracy, Greece's stability and economic prosperity improved significantly. Greece rejoined in 1980, joined the (EU) in 1981 and adopted the as its currency in 2001. New infrastructure funds from the EU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, services, light industry and the telecommunications industry have brought Greeks an unprecedented standard of living. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and over Cyprus and the in the but relations have considerably thawed following successive earthquakes, first in Turkey and then in Greece, and an outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks (see ). Greece in the Eurozone The 2008 global economic recession impacted Greece, as well as the . From late 2009, fears developed in investment markets of a concerning Greece's ability to pay its debts, in view of the large increase in the country's . This crisis of confidence was indicated by a widening of s and risk insurance on s compared to other countries, most importantly Germany. Downgrading of Greek government debt to status created alarm in financial markets. On 2 May 2010, the Eurozone countries and the agreed on a loan for Greece, conditional on the implementation of harsh austerity measures. In October 2011, Eurozone leaders also agreed on a proposal to write off 50% of Greek debt owed to private creditors, increasing the amount to about €1 trillion, and requiring European banks to achieve 9% capitalization to reduce the risk of to other countries. These austerity measures were extremely unpopular with the Greek public, precipitating demonstrations and civil unrest. References Category:Empires